Western Himalaya and Tibet A Narrative of a Journey Through the Mountains of Northern India During the Years 1847-8 — Themes and Context

Appointment to a Mission about to proceed to Tibet -- Leave Firozpur for Simla -- Approach to the Mountains -- Appearance of Himalaya from Plains of India -- Kalka -- Ascent to Kussowlee -- Vegetation of Plainward Face -- Origin of Kussowlee Ridge -- Climate and Vegetation of Kussowlee -- Aspect of inner ranges -- Road from Kussowlee to Simla -- Sabathu -- Cross Gambar River -- Haripur -- Tropical Vegetation of Basin of Gambar -- Steep Ascent to Simla -- its extent and situation -- its Vegetation -- Oak-forest -- Pines -- Flora of Spring Months -- of Rainy Season -- View from Peak of Jako -- Structure of Mountain Ranges 1

Leave Simla -- Mahasu Ridge -- Pine Forest -- Summit of Mahasu -- Vegetation of Northern Slope -- Fagu -- Theog -- Mattiana -- Cultivated Valley -- Nagkanda -- Ascent of Hattu -- Forest of Pine and Oak -- Vegetation of Summit -- View from top of Mountain -- Plainward slopes bare of forest, while those facing the interior are well wooded -- Cultivation at 9500 feet -- Descent from Nagkanda towards Sutlej -- Damp shady Ravine densely wooded -- Kotgarh -- Cultivation -- Rapid Descent -- Change of Climate -- Tropical Vegetation -- Rampur -- Swing-bridge -- Diurnal fluctuations in level of River -- Gaora -- Serahan -- Tranda -- Western boundary of Kunawar 29

Sildang river -- Fine grove of Deodars -- Nachar -- Fruit-trees -- Vine seen for first time -- Boundaries of Kulu and Kunawar -- Cross Sutlej at Wangtu bridge -- Vegetation of bare rocky valley -- Waterfall -- Chegaon -- _Pinus Gerardiana_ -- Miru -- Absence of rain -- Alteration of vegetation -- _Quercus Ilex_ -- Rogi -- Willow and Poplar -- Chini -- Cultivated Plain -- Kashbir -- Pangi -- Camp at upper level of trees -- Junipers -- Werang Pass -- Alpine Vegetation -- Birch and _Rhododendron_ -- Granite Boulders -- Lipa -- Alluvial Deposits -- Encamp at 12,500 feet -- Runang Pass -- Vegetation very scanty -- Stunted Forest -- Sungnam 63

Hangarang ridge separates Kunawar from Piti -- Ascent to Hangarang Pass -- Alluvial deposit -- Steep ascent -- View of valley -- Limestone rocks -- _Caragana versicolor_, or _Dama_ -- Camp at 14,000 feet -- Top of pass -- View from pass -- Vegetation of summit -- Descent to Hango -- Cultivation round the village -- Luxuriant wild plants -- Road to Lio -- _Crambe_ -- Ravine of Piti river -- Lio -- Bridge over Piti river -- Ascent to Nako -- Nako -- Cultivation of the village -- Buddhist temple -- Transported blocks -- Chango -- Changar -- Stopped by villagers on Chinese frontier -- Natural bridge -- Kyuri -- Alluvium -- Clay deposit with shells -- Lari -- Ramifications of mountain ranges -- Alluvial platforms -- Pok -- Dankar -- Lara -- Rangrig -- Upper part of Piti -- Climate -- Saline exudations 96

Leave valley of Piti river -- Kibar -- Cultivation above 14,000 feet -- Vegetation of mountains -- Rocky gorge -- Encampment at 17,000 feet -- Parang Pass -- Snow-bed and glacier -- First plants at 16,500 feet -- Parang valley -- Gorge leading to Chumoreri Lake -- Kiang, or wild horse -- Chumurti -- Remarkable grassy plain -- Lanak Pass -- Granite boulders -- Plants above 18,000 feet -- Undulating hilly country -- Hanle plain -- Vegetation -- Monastery of Hanle 130

Descend Hanle river -- Unsettled weather -- Encamp on banks of Indus -- Upper course of Indus -- Pugha ravine -- Forest of Myricaria trees -- Borax plain -- Hot springs -- Borax lakes of Eastern Tibet -- Sulphur mine -- Pulokanka Pass -- Salt lake -- Lacustrine clays with shells -- Ancient water-mark -- Rupchu -- Tunglung Pass -- Fall of snow -- Alluvial conglomerate -- Giah -- Narrow ravine -- Miru -- Upshi -- Indus valley -- Marsilang -- Richly cultivated plain of Chashut -- Bridge over Indus -- Le -- Buddhist edifices 155

Departure from Le -- Sabu valley -- Pass between Le and Nubra -- Snow -- Encamp at 15,500 feet -- Digar -- Valley of Shayuk -- Alluvium -- _Populus Euphratica_ -- Tsatti -- Nubra river -- District of Nubra -- Villages -- Irrigation -- Saline soil -- Isolated rocks -- Chirasa -- Panamik -- Lower Nubra -- Platforms of Alluvium -- Traces of a great flood -- Unmaru -- Kuru -- Great contraction of valley -- Mountain pass of Waris -- Boghdan ravine -- Chorbat -- Mahommedan population -- Villages -- Outburst of granite -- Siksa -- Khapalu -- Open plain of Khapalu -- Junction of Shayuk and Indus -- Nar -- Iskardo plain -- Description of Iskardo -- Aqueduct -- Fort -- Lacustrine clay formation -- Vegetation 187

Leave Iskardo in the direction of Kashmir -- First march through snow to Turgu -- Lacustrine clay -- it extends into narrow valleys beyond Nar -- Gol -- Junction of Indus and Shayuk -- Parkuta -- Tolti -- Kartash -- Extensive lacustrine deposits -- Tarkata -- Road turns up the Dras river -- Ulding Thung -- Fall of snow -- Hardas -- Karbu -- Continued snow -- Dras -- Find pass in front shut by deep snow -- Obliged to return to Iskardo -- Rafts and rope-bridges on Indus -- _Elæagnus_ and Apricot apparently wild -- Winter at Iskardo 223

Leave Iskardo for Rondu -- Insurrection in Gilgit -- Koardu -- Kamar -- Enter narrow part of Indus valley -- Difficult road -- Range of mountains south of Indus -- Description of Rondu -- Thawar -- Avalanches -- Alluvium -- Swing-bridge -- Villages -- Juniper -- _Pinus excelsa_ -- Rocks -- Vegetation -- Return to Iskardo -- Agriculture of Balti -- Game of Chaugan -- Chakor hunting -- Shigar valley -- Journey towards Kashmir -- Dras valley -- Karbu -- Dras fort -- Maten -- Cross pass into Kashmir -- Baltal -- Valley of Sind river -- Sonamarg -- Gagangir -- Gond -- Gangan -- Ganderbal -- Enter main valley of Kashmir -- Town of Kashmir -- Description of Kashmir -- Lacustrine formation -- Trap hills -- Lake -- Climate -- Vegetation 248

Environs of Kashmir -- City lake -- Gardens of Shalimar and Dilawer Khan -- Pampur -- Avantipura -- Platforms of lacustrine clay -- Mountain of Wasterwan -- Ancient city -- Clay, with shells and fragments of pottery -- Ancient temple imbedded in clay -- Lakes caused by subsidence -- Islamabad -- Shahabad -- Vegetation -- Vernag -- Banahal Pass -- Valley of Banahal -- Tropical vegetation -- Pass above Chenab Valley -- Nasmon -- _Jhula_, or Swing-bridge -- Balota -- Ladhe ke Dhar -- Katti -- Fort of Landar -- Mir -- Kirmichi -- Tertiary sandstones -- Dhuns -- Seda -- Jamu 285

Leave Jamu to return to Tibet -- Lake of Sirohi Sar -- Vegetation of lower hills -- _Dodonæa_ -- Ramnagar -- Garta -- Dadu, on a tributary of the Chenab -- Camp at 10,000 feet -- Badarwar -- Padri pass -- Descend a tributary of the Ravi -- and ascend another towards the north -- Sach _Joth_, or pass -- Snow-beds -- Camp in Chenab valley 315

Marked change in the Vegetation -- Bridge over Chenab -- Pargwal -- Description of Chenab valley -- Asdhari -- Chatargarh -- Road turns up valley of Butna -- Vegetation of Chenab valley -- Chishot -- Snow-beds -- Camp at 10,500 feet -- Ancient moraines -- Glacier -- Camp at 11,500 feet -- Rapid ascent along glacier -- Camp on moraine, at 14,600 feet -- Change of weather -- Ascent towards pass over glacier -- Cross Umasi La -- Descent -- Immense glacier -- Encamp in Tibet, at 13,800 feet -- Open valley of Zanskar -- Padum -- Great change of climate -- and in vegetation 342

Rope bridge across Zanskar river -- Tongde -- Zangla -- Road leaves Zanskar river -- Takti La -- Nira -- Bridge over Zanskar river -- Singhi La -- Phutaksha -- Wandla -- Lama Yuru -- Cross Indus river -- Kalatze -- Nurla -- Saspola -- Nimo -- Le -- Pass north of Le -- Small glacier -- Kardong -- Kalsar -- Vegetation -- Diskit -- Passage of Shayuk river -- Upper Nubra -- Vegetation of Nubra -- Hot spring at Panamik 367

Start for Karakoram -- Steep ascent out of Nubra valley -- Meet a party of Merchants from Yarkand -- View from summit of pass -- Rapid torrent -- Large glacier -- Steep moraines -- Alpine vegetation -- Numerous glaciers -- Lakes -- Glacier on crest of Sassar pass -- Sassar -- Cross Shayuk river -- Murgai -- Limestone rocks -- Ascend Murgai Valley to 16,800 feet -- Singular limestone formation -- Open plain above 17,000 feet -- Re-cross Shayuk river -- Karakoram pass -- Return to Sassar -- Glaciers of Sassar -- Return to Le -- Start for Kashmir -- Lamayuru -- Phatu pass -- Kanji river -- Namika pass -- Molbil -- Pashkyum -- Kargil -- Dras -- Zoji pass -- Kashmir -- Lahore -- Completion of journey 408

General description of Tibet -- Systems of mountains -- Trans-Sutlej Himalaya -- Cis-Sutlej Himalaya -- Kouenlun -- Four passes across Kouenlun -- Boundaries of Western Tibet -- Height of its mountain ranges and passes -- Climate of Tibet -- Clouds -- Winds -- Snow-fall -- Glaciers -- their former greater extension -- Elevation to which they descend -- Snow-level -- Geology -- Lacustrine clay and alluvium 456

Appointment to a Mission about to proceed to Tibet -- Leave Firozpur for Simla -- Approach to the Mountains -- Appearance of Himalaya from Plains of India -- Kalka -- Ascent to Kussowlee -- Vegetation of Plainward Face -- Origin of Kussowlee Ridge -- Climate and Vegetation of Kussowlee -- Aspect of inner ranges -- Road from Kussowlee to Simla -- Sabathu -- Cross Gambar River -- Haripur -- Tropical Vegetation of Basin of Gambar -- Steep Ascent to Simla -- its extent and situation -- its Vegetation -- Oak-forest -- Pines -- Flora of Spring Months -- of Rainy Season -- View from Peak of Jako -- Structure of Mountain Ranges.

In the month of May, 1847, while with my Regiment at Firozpur on the south bank of the Sutlej, I received intimation that Lord Hardinge, at that time Governor-General of India, had appointed me a member of a mission which he had determined to despatch across the Himalaya Mountains into Tibet; and I was directed to proceed without delay to Simla, from which place the mission was to start, as soon as the necessary arrangements could be completed.

I left Firozpur on the evening of the 20th of May, and travelling only at night, on account of the extreme heat, I arrived at the foot of the hills, on the morning of the 24th. The greater part of the road was through a perfectly level country, and nearly parallel to the Sutlej, but without following its sinuosities. During a part of the last night's journey, I travelled among low hills, partly composed of loose sand and boulders, partly of clay and sandstone. The road enters this tract by an open valley, bounded on both sides by hills, which on the left are low and rounded. On the right they are scarped towards the plains, as well as towards the valley up which I travelled, and the strata of which they are composed, dip towards the Himalaya. The valley is traversed by a little stream descending from the mountains, one of the tributaries of the Gagar or Markanda, that remarkable river, which runs in a south-west direction, as if about to join the Indus, but ultimately loses itself in the sands of the Bikanir desert.

[Sidenote: APPEARANCE OF HIMALAYA FROM THE PLAINS OF INDIA. _May, 1847._]

When viewed from the plains of India, at a distance sufficient to enable the spectator to see the most elevated part of the chain, the Himalaya appear to form several distinct parallel ranges on the horizon, rising in succession one behind another. The most distant of these is covered with perpetual snow, while the other two, usually called the middle and outer ranges, have the usual blue-grey tint of distant mountains. From very great distances in the plains, the most remote of these three apparent ranges is alone visible; and as the traveller advances towards the base of the mountains, the others rise in succession above the horizon.

The optical deception, in consequence of which, masses of mountains of every configuration resolve themselves into ranges perpendicular to the line of sight, as soon as the eye is so far removed that the outline of the different parts becomes indistinct, has given to our maps many mountain-chains, which a nearer inspection proves to have no existence. As a good instance of this, I may mention the Suliman range, west of the Indus, which, though laid down in all our maps as a mountain belt, parallel to and skirting the plain country, behind which no mountains at all are represented, evidently consists of a series of ranges, almost perpendicular to the Indus, and separated from one another by considerable rivers. The sources of these rivers lie far back, and the north and south axis from which they spring, separates all the tributaries of the Indus from a succession of streams, which run in a south-westerly direction, and appear to terminate, without reaching the sea, in the low and flat country of Seistan and western Beluchistan.

At distances of between sixty and thirty miles from the base of the Himalaya, the three parallel chains are well seen. On a nearer approach, the lower and outer mountains by degrees become more distinct, and subtend a greater angle, so as at last to conceal the more distant portions of the chain. At the same time, the uniformity of outline by which they had been characterized, insensibly disappears. Ridges become visible in the face presented to the eye, which, as the traveller continues to advance, become developed into projecting spurs, separated from the general mass by wide valleys, previously quite undistinguishable. On a still nearer approach, the elevation continuing to increase, the extent of range embraced by the eye is gradually lessened, till at last, when we arrive at the base of the mountains, a single valley with its bounding ranges of low hills is alone visible, the giant masses, so conspicuous from a greater distance, being no longer to be seen.

The low sandy or sandstone hills, which form the outskirts of the Himalaya, are not, on the road from Firozpur to Simla, anywhere of greater elevation than a few hundred feet. A few miles beyond the entrance, the valley, which has a considerable slope, widens as it approaches the more lofty mountains, and the sandstone cliffs are replaced by rounded hills, probably of a more ancient rock, covered with soil and vegetation.

[Sidenote: KALKA. _May, 1847._]

At the very base of the steep mountains is situated the village of Kalka, at which, as it is the termination of palankin travelling, travellers in general stop, to arrange for the continuance of their journey. Situated close to the source of the little stream which I had been following since I had entered the hilly country, and surrounded on all sides by low hills, Kalka has an elevation of perhaps 2000 feet above the level of the sea, or 1000 feet above the plain on the outside of the sandstone hills.

The general aspect of the low hills around Kalka is barren and uninviting; it was especially so at the season of my visit, when the great heat had scorched the herbaceous vegetation, and all nature had a burnt-up appearance. The subtropical valleys are not here, as farther to the east along the base of the mountains, filled with dense forest. They are in general bare, a few scattered trees only appearing here and there. In the level part of the valley, at the very entrance, where the soil was still of some depth, _Acacia Arabica_ and _Butea frondosa_, the most prevailing trees of the plains beyond, were frequent; but the stony water-courses contained little but a bamboo, and the hill-sides were covered with scattered bushes of the more ordinary shrubs of the plains of Northern India, and presented few features of interest.

[Sidenote: ASCENT TO KUSSOWLEE. _May, 1847._]

Immediately on leaving Kalka, a long and steep ascent commenced, continuing for about ten miles, to the military post of Kussowlee, which occupies the crest of the ridge overlooking the Kalka valley, and can be seen throughout the greater part of the ascent, overhanging the winding road, which has been constructed along the side of the mountain. The elevation of Kussowlee is about 6500 feet, an altitude at which the climate in the Himalaya is perfectly temperate, so that during the ascent a traveller from the plains of India meets with a complete change of climate, a change, too, which in the month of May, the period of my visit, is particularly grateful, the heat below being most oppressive and disagreeable.

As the elevation increases, the view from the road becomes more extensive. The low ranges of hills to the south and west, which had obstructed the view, are by degrees overtopped, and the plains beyond become visible. Soon after leaving Kalka the road crosses a low ridge, and enters a receding bay, or steeply sloping valley beyond, at the upper extremity of which, all along the crest, are seen the houses of Kussowlee. Winding round this valley, and continuing to rise, the stream in its centre is crossed about midway, and the ascent continues on the spur which forms its western boundary. This ridge is crossed close to the point where it is given off by the main range, and the road, winding round its most projecting part, enters a fir-wood, and, turning back very abruptly in an opposite direction, proceeds eastward along the northern face of the Kussowlee range.

[Sidenote: VEGETATION. _May, 1847._]

The plainward face of this range, along which the road from Kalka ascends, is quite devoid of forest. The lower part is covered with scattered jungle, to use a most expressive Indian word, of small shrubs, almost all of forms common in the plains. _Carissa_ and _Adhatoda_ are the most common, with _Rottlera tinctoria_, a plant which does not extend far into the plains, and a scandent leguminous shrub, apparently a species of _Mucuna_. Around the few houses which occur on the ascent, the bamboo occurs planted, as well as the mango, and other common cultivated trees of the Indian plains. At an elevation of about 4000 feet, an alteration in the vegetation begins to be perceptible. The thin jungle of plain shrubs disappears, the few shrubs which still occur, are generally scattered bushes of _Hamiltonia_, _Nyctanthes_, _Prinsepia_, _Scutellaria_, and _Rubus_, but the slopes are usually bare and grassy. Ferns and mosses appear in the crevices of the rocks, and the first individuals of those species which predominate in the temperate zone, are found in shady spots where they are sheltered from the sun. At the same elevation _Euphorbia pentagona_ makes its appearance. This tree, which is confined to the hottest and driest slopes of the Himalaya, is remarkable for its peculiar shape, its thick fleshy five-angled branches, and its milky juice. It is nowhere to be met with in the plains of Upper India, but is common throughout the subtropical belt of the Himalaya from Kamaon westward.

[Sidenote: ORIGIN OF KUSSOWLEE RIDGE. _May, 1847._]

A glance at the map will serve to show that the great Himalayan mountain range, dividing the waters of the Sutlej from those of the Jumna, holds a nearly due east and west course in its middle part, but that at its western extremity it bends round to the south, and terminates in the Indian plain, not far from the town of Nahan, and that (among many others) the Kussowlee ridge is a branch from it, running in a north-westerly direction, and separating the waters of the more western branch of the Gambar, from the small tributaries of the Gagar, which find their way to the plains on the left hand.

The ridge upon which the station of Kussowlee is built, nowhere attains an elevation exceeding 7000 feet. It is very narrow, and often rocky and precipitous immediately below the crest on the plainward face, which dips very suddenly. The inner slope is somewhat less abrupt, and is covered from the summit to perhaps 1000 feet below it, with an open forest of a species of fir (_Pinus longifolia_), which, in general appearance and mode of growth, much resembles the Scotch fir, but is distinguished by the very great length of its leaves. The barracks for the troops and the houses of the residents are scattered over the northern slope, or perched on the narrow summit of the ridge.